EditThe Writing Handbook
EditRules of Good Writing
EditChapter 1. The composition of good writing
Writing must be clear, concise and focused, in addition to being error free. In the case of persuasive or
expository writing, it should incorporate support and organization. Failure to do so will result in a weakly
defended thesis, a confusing structure or an unclear explanation; in other words, no one will want to read
the paper because it is not "good".
Clarity is vital in writing. When the reader of a well written essay finishes that reading, he or she will
know the author, title, and basic plot of the book. He or she will understand the message the book’s author
meant to convey. He or she will know the topic of your paper and your thesis or controlling purpose of
writing that paper. Your reader will be satisfied that you have supported your thesis with appropriate
information from your research.
EditGuidelines for Writing
To write “good” persuasive or expository essays (the types most often assigned for large class papers
and/or for written sections of standardized tests), one should follow the five suggestions explained below.
These guidelines reflect both State goals and mastery expectations for standardized exams.
· Focus
o Include an effective introduction that incorporates fluid use of anecdotes, quotations, personal
appeals or other strategies. The introductory sentence(s) should provide generic, background
information relating to the topic. A specific preview of ideas will appear in the introductory
paragraph.
o Continue a logical progression of ideas and purposeful writing.
o End with an effective closing that offers readers a sense of closure. Relate the conclusion to the
introduction by reemphasizing a particular appeal or question.
· Support
o Make sure the framework of the paper is fully developed with sub points, illustrations, and
explanations.
o Use multiple supports; do not just rely on one way of saying something. Try mixing evidence
with explanations and examples.
o Make sure the support is balanced through the paper. Do not offer support for one and not
another.
o Use specific words, not general terms. Establish credibility by becoming an expert and writing
like one.
· Organization
o Have a “plan of attack” – know what direction the paper has and help the reader to understand
the structure early in the essay.
o Use points and ideas which logically relate.
o Incorporate transitions and construct paragraphs that demonstrate coherence and cohesion.
o Vary sentence structure and word choice to make the reading enjoyable and fluid.
· Conventions
o Avoid common errors of thought by using correct punctuation, spelling and syntax.
o Vary sentence construction. Don’t rely entirely on simple or complex sentences.
o Watch for verb tense agreement throughout the essay. Do not mix tenses in the same sentence
or paragraph. Use past tense to narrate past events, e.g. Harper Lee published her novel in
1960. Use present tense when writing about fictional literature, e.g. in The Crucible John
Proctor decides to die rather than tarnish his reputation.
o Avoid passive voice wherever possible. Active voice is more straightforward and direct.
· Maintain a neutral, third-person point of view. Avoid inserting personal opinion or voice unless
required to do so.
o Proofread! Evaluators (teachers, college admission personnel, or exam judges) know how long
a student has had to prepare a piece of writing. Blatant mistakes are never overlooked, but a
timed piece of writing is allowed more leniency because the writer does not have days or weeks
to edit and revise. Keep in mind there should be few minor (even fewer major) errors in
proportion to the amount written.
· Integration
o Make sure to answer the question/address the idea assigned as fully as possible.
o Present a clear and purposeful focus, in-depth support, and reasoning that develop coherently
throughout the paper.
EditRecognizing the difference between an “A” paper and a “D” paper
Although it may seem difficult to immediately see the difference between an “A” paper and a “D” paper,
there are key identifiers that anyone can use in determining the quality of a piece of writing. Keep in mind
that many times students are asked to peer-edit classmates’ work, so it is not acceptable to think only
teachers need to worry about what makes a “good” paper.
An “A” paper grabs a reader’s attention and develops an issue to the fullest extent possible. The paper
clearly identifies the position or subject of an essay and provides detailed information about the position or
subject. The paper provides the reader with an easy-to-follow structure that is tied together with smooth
transitional devices. The logic used to respond to the issue is continued throughout the paper and the
response contains numerous details to help the reader understand the issue or persuade the reader on the
issue. The paper includes vivid and effective examples related to the topic. An “A” paper also uses strong
word choice and has few conventional errors. The paper has correct sentence structure, punctuation, and
capitalization; it uses verb-tense agreement and subject-verb agreement throughout. Finally, in the
conclusion the “A” paper ties together the strong points without being redundant or repetitive.
A “D” paper only scratches the surface of an issue. The paper does not clearly identify the position or
subject of an essay, nor does it provide enough information about the position or subject. The paper lacks
focus and isn’t clearly developed; the ideas don’t logically flow from one to the next, or they may seem
repetitious. Moreover, the “D” paper doesn’t offer enough detail, and the details that are provided are just
listed without further elaboration. The paper is vague and may be too short to fully allow the reader to
make a reliable judgment on the issue presented. Finally, a “D” paper has a significant number of
conventional errors that may affect a reader’s understanding of what is written.
==Chapter 2 Basic English Style and Grammar
==
Refer to the following rules of style and grammar for any task requiring formal or standard written
English. These rules provide basic guidance only and do not address every situation a writer may
encounter. The classroom teacher or a member of the writing center staff should be the primary resource
for writing issues. In a conflict between these rules and a teacher’s approach to writing, follow the
teacher’s advice. Use the reference works listed in Appendix B at the end of this handbook to solve
difficult or atypical writing problems.
Part One: Style
The concept of “style” refers to conventions (generally accepted rules) of punctuation, capitalization,
spelling, and the visual appearance of words. These conventions work closely with the rules of grammar,
which are explained below and have more to do with the relationships between words and groups of
words.
A piece of writing that does not follow the rules of style can be difficult to understand. On the other hand,
a writer using standard style communicates ideas clearly and confidently, making the reader’s job of
interpretation easier. Standard style can help a writer organize thoughts and express concepts effectively,
which should be every writer’s goals.
Punctuation
At the end of a sentence:
· period (.): Use a period to end a declarative sentence, one that makes a simple statement of fact or
opinion without more than usual emphasis. Most sentences in English are declarative, which means the
period appears more often than any other punctuation mark.
Example: Vampires rarely chew their food before swallowing it.
Also use a period at the end of a request that does not ask for information, but instead calmly
orders someone to do something.
Example: Please make sure you fasten your seat belt before starting the back hoe.
· question mark (?): Question marks at the end of a sentence mean the sentence is meant to be
interrogative, or asking for information, whether seriously or not. A “rhetorical question” is a sentence
that asks a question but does not expect an answer.
Example (standard question): Are you sure it was still breathing?
Example (rhetorical question): Do you really think a dead frog could jump that high?
· exclamation point (!): Use an exclamation point for sentences that require greater emphasis. It
indicates stronger feelings than a declarative sentence, and makes the sentence seem louder or faster.
Example: For the last time, don’t drink milk from the carton!
In the middle of a sentence:
· comma (,): No punctuation mark has as many uses, or is as confusing to use, as the comma. Think of it
this way: commas do nothing more than create a short, minor pause in the sentence’s flow. This pause
is shorter than any that comes at the end of a sentence, and shorter than the pauses that follow more
complicated punctuation marks like the semicolon (;), colon (:), or dash (¾). The hyphen (-), a mark
that occurs between syllables in a split word and in some compound words (e.g. green-blue, thirty-five,
post-1985), makes a shorter pause than a comma, but not by much.
1. Use a comma to separate items in a list or series. A comma after the second-to-last item in a list is
optional; either use it or not, but stay consistent throughout the paper.
Example (comma used): We went to the game with a bat, a glove, a baseball, a cooler, and a
change of socks.
Example (comma dropped): We went to the game with a bat, a glove, a baseball, a cooler and a
change of socks.
2. Use a comma to separate parts of a place or date.
Example: We watched the game on Monday, January 31, 1982, at a stadium in Schaumburg,
Illinois.
3. In most cases, use a comma to set off an introductory phrase from an independent clause (a set of
words that has both a subject and verb and could be its own complete sentence). The longer the
introductory phrase, the more likely it is to need a comma.
Example (short phrase, no comma): At first there were only six professional hockey teams in the
NHL.
Example (longer phrase, needs a comma): Looking over the dashboard in a panic of disbelief and
intense fear, Mona stopped the car.
4. Use a comma to separate longer independent clauses that are joined by a conjunction. See the rule
above or the section below for the definition of an independent clause. A conjunction is a word that
simply links one side of a sentence to another. Some common conjunctions are and, but, for, or, so,
then, and when.
Examples: The car left the highway in a hurry, and I heard on the radio that it landed in a forest
beneath the road.
The time had come for us to leave, but we were unable to move our legs.
We could have bought the dog with the stripe down its back from our neighbor, or we
could have kept grandmother’s dachshund for a while longer.
5. Use a comma to set off a nonrestrictive (not necessary to the sentence’s meaning) phrase (a set of
words that on its own could not be a complete sentence) or clause (a set of words that on its own
could be a complete sentence) from the rest of the sentence. A restrictive phrase or clause is one that
can not be removed without drastically changing the sentence’s meaning.
Example (nonrestrictive clause, with commas): My two-liter bottle of soda, which had been in the
freezer for too long, cracked in half. (The important thing is that the bottle cracked, not
that it was in the freezer.)
5
Example (restrictive phrase, without commas): The bird with one wing longer than the other flew
in circles over our boat.
6. Along the same lines, use a comma to set off a nonrestrictive appositive (a phrase that clarifies the
identity of someone or something else mentioned in the sentence) from the rest of the sentence.
Example (nonrestrictive, with commas): George W. Bush, the President of the United States, has
an MBA from Harvard. (Everyone knows he’s the current president.)
Example (restrictive, without commas): Led Zeppelin’s song “Stairway to Heaven” was never
released as a single. (Without the song’s title, the sentence is vague and does not make
much sense.)
7. Use a comma to set off a word or group of words being contrasted with another part of the
sentence.
Examples: The way to true happiness is through confidence, not fear.
The car looks better in red, not light blue.
Remember: A good writer uses a comma to create a short pause. This pause should help the reader
understand exactly what the writer is trying to say; if a pause would either allow the reader a
chance to absorb meaning or make clear the relative importance of words in a sentence, then use a
comma.
· semicolon (;): Use the semicolon to create a slightly longer pause between parts of a sentence. There
are only two general situations that require a semicolon.
1. Use a semicolon to separate long and wordy items in a list.
Example: Over the course of a decade, my family has lived in Springfield, Cairo, and Rockford in
Illinois; Madison, Milwaukee, and Delafield in Wisconsin; and Buffalo in New York.
2. Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses (see comma rule 3 above) when they are not
joined by a conjunction (see comma rule 4 above). Technically, these independent clauses could be
written as individual sentences; however, sometimes using a semicolon and joining them adds
variety to a paper and can help a writer develop a personal style.
Example: Few things frustrate me more than traffic jams; in fact, I cannot at the moment think of
anything more irritating.
· colon (:): Like the semicolon, colons fit best only in those sentences that would be clearer or more
interesting because of them. These sentences are few and far between in standard writing because they
often feature long independent clauses or lists.
1. Use a colon at the beginning of a long list, or of a list that has long items within it. This makes
sense, because a comma alone (or no punctuation at all) might make the sentence difficult to
understand.
6
Example: Most students take the following courses before graduating from high school: English I,
II, and III; World History and American History; three years of a foreign language; and
at least one art class.
2. Use a colon before restating an idea within a sentence when both parts of the sentence are
independent clauses. This is different from semicolon rule 2 because the second clause actually
rephrases the first.
Example: This movie should never have been released in the theater: it should have been sent
straight to video.
· quotation marks (" " or '): Quotation marks play a very specific role in formal English writing: they
introduce spoken language or, in rare cases, add emphasis by isolating a word or phrase within a
sentence.
1. Use double quotation marks (" ") to enclose a direct quotation, one that reports a person's exact
words.
Example: "Keep your feet on the ground," said a once-famous DJ, "but keep reaching for the stars."
2. Use single quotation marks (' ) to enclose a separate quote within a direct quotation.
Example: My father always said: "Don't leave the fallout shelter until you hear the words 'all clear'
over the short-wave radio."
3. Use double quotation marks to isolate important words, either for emphasis or irony.
Examples: Few defendants feel comfortable when this judge makes his "rabid-dog" face in court.
The weather forecaster's promised "sunny day" turned rainy by 10:00 am.
· dash (¾): The dash, unlike the other punctuation marks used inside a sentence, represents a quick,
hard, but temporary pause between ideas. The dash works in just two situations.
1. Use the dash to set off material that interrupts the rest of the sentence.
Example: The door would not open¾there was something behind it¾so I just sat there looking
lost.
2. Use the dash when a sentence, especially a quote, is cut off suddenly. In other words, the dash
takes the place of words left out for dramatic effect. This works well with dialogue when a speaker
gets interrupted or stops speaking in mid-sentence.
Example: "Just run! Don't look behind you! The tornado is almost¾"
Using quotation marks with other punctuation marks:
Follow the rules below for a period, question mark, exclamation point, comma, semicolon, colon, or dash.
· periods and commas: Place the quotation marks outside a period or comma.
Example: "Anyone can clearly see," said my observant friend, staring down at the bare concrete, "that
this swimming pool is closed."
· semicolons and colons: Place the quotation marks inside a semicolon or colon.
Example: The evidence clearly showed that my cousin had "flown the coop"; I had little hope of ever
getting my suitcase back again.
Example: George had a "face for radio": his voice was fine, but he looked funny.
· question marks and exclamation points: Place the quotation marks outside a question mark or
exclamation point when it is part of the quote, but inside when it is part of the larger sentence.
Examples: "Leave that dog alone!" warned my mother.
"Which dog?" I asked, knowing full well that there was no dog in the yard at the moment.
Which poem does you like best, "Thanatopsis" or "The Boa Constrictor"?
I could not believe my ears when most people responded with "Thanatopsis"!
· With the dash, the position of the quotation marks depends on the context. If the material set off by
dashes interrupts the sentence, then put the quotation marks inside the dash. If the dash cuts off a
sentence or independent clause before it ends, the quotation marks should be outside the dash.
Examples: Only one phrase¾"Let's eat!"¾would get the dog off the couch.
Kim said, "That's not fair! I was the last one to¾" and then stormed out of the room.
Punctuation used within words:
The hyphen and the apostrophe are used within words rather than sentences. They have very specific uses.
· the hyphen (-):
1. Use the hyphen to break words between syllables at the end of a line. A syllable is a single unit of
sound in a word; see the section on grammar to learn how to break words into syllables.
Example: The best place to break a word in a long sentence is between syllables
lables.
2. Use the hyphen to make a compound adjective from two or more words, but only when the
compound adjective comes before the noun it describes.
Example: medium-sized town BUT a town of a medium size
· the apostrophe ('):
1. Use the apostrophe to replace letters in a contraction (a single word formed by combing two or
more other words).
Example: I haven't ever understood why rich people don't just give their money away to people who
aren't as fortunate as they have been.
("haven't" is the combination of "have" and "not"; "don't" is the combination of "do" and "not";
"aren't" is the combination of "are" and "not")
2. Use the apostrophe to show ownership or possession.
Example: Joe's turtle finished the race before Jim's by less than a minute.
This is true for all singular nouns, even those ending in an “s.” Therefore, “Ross’s break” is correct,
even though a spell-checker may not think so.
Plural possessives are formed by adding the apostrophe alone.
Examples: We came early to the ballpark so we could steal the players’ bats.
Capitalization
The following section briefly reviews the rules of capitalization. For a more complete discussion, refer
to one of the style manuals listed in the index at the back of this handbook. General rule: Capitalize
words that seem to designate something specific, such as an object, a place, a person, a new sentence,
or a title.
Capitalize proper nouns.
· Proper nouns are people, places, things, or ideas that have a specific name rather than a general
description. For instance: “United States of America” is a specific “country”; “country” is not
capitalized, since this is a general description.
Examples: Chicago (instead of “city”)
Great America (instead of “amusement park”)
Jane Doe (instead of “woman”)
Lake Zurich High School (instead of “school”)
Darwinism (instead of “theory”)
Also capitalize the personal pronoun “I,” although it is not technically a proper noun.
Capitalize the first word in a sentence or complete quotation within a sentence.
· This means the first word of EVERY sentence should be capitalized, whether it is complete or not.
Capitalize the first word of a quotation within a sentence ONLY if the quotation is complete.
Example: No! You can’t leave yet!
The man in the blue suit said, “My partner will send an elephant over to your friend’s
house.” He promised that it would arrive “no later than 2:00.”
(Notice the first sentence is incomplete but still starts with a capital; the second sentence contains a
complete quote, so the quote begins with a capital; and the third sentence contains a partial
quotation only, so the quote begins with a lower case letter.)
Titles
Few rules confuse writers more frequently than those dictating the way titles should be styled. This is
even more difficult because not every style manual agrees. In a traditional English course (but not a
journalism course), ignore the way newspapers and magazines print the titles of books, movies,
periodicals, works of art, poems, songs, essays, and short stories. Follow the rules below instead. (For
journalism courses, see the AP Stylebook.)
In all circumstances, capitalize the first word in a title and every other word in a title except
conjunctions (e.g. and, but, or) and prepositions (e.g. into, on, of). If the word distinguishes something
specific or identifiable within the title, capitalize it. Titles should be taken from the title page rather
than the cover, where possible. Use standard capitalization rules and the standard font, rather than any
unusual forms. Never italicize titles. Underline the titles of works which are published independently,
and use quotation marks for works published within larger works.
Works to be underlined include:
ballets and operas (e.g. Swan Lake, Carmen)
books (e.g. To Kill a Mockingbird)
compact discs, records and tapes sold commercially (e.g. Paul McCartney’s Off the Ground)
films, videos, and DVDs sold commercially and identified by name (e.g. The Wizard of Oz)
musical compositions identified by name (e.g. Berlioz’s Symphonie Fantastique)
pamphlets (e.g. Illinois Rules of the Road)
paintings, drawings, or sculptures (e.g. Chagall’s I and My Village)
periodicals (magazines, newspapers, journals) (e.g. Newsweek, Journal of American Philanthropy)
plays (e.g. Death of a Salesman)
poem published as a book (e.g. The Waste Land)
sculptures (e.g., Rodin’s The Thinker)
television program (e.g. Star Trek)
vehicles with specific names (aircraft, spacecraft, ships: e.g. Spirit of St. Louis, Apollo 13)
Works to be put in “quotation marks” include:
chapter titles in a book
encyclopedia articles
episodes of television shows
episodes of radio shows
essays in a book
lectures and speeches
magazine articles
newspaper articles
poems (single reference, e.g. “Kubla Khan”)
short stories
song titles
website articles
Numbers
The following rules govern the way numbers should appear in formal English writing. These are
somewhat flexible and open to personal preference, but the best writing stays consistent.
1. spell out numbers under 100 (twelve, NOT 12; fifty-three, NOT 53)
2. use numerals for numbers 100 or over
3. always spell out ordinal numbers (first; twenty-third; one-hundred-tenth)
4. never spell out numbers in dates, items from numbered lists, or military divisions
Numbers should be written out if you can do so in one or two words. Otherwise, use Arabic numerals.
Write: one, five, twenty-one, one hundred, eighteen hundred, but write 5½, 101, 5,280. If your writing
contains the recurrent use of numeric statistical or scientific data, use numerals for those numbers.
Special rules apply when writing numbers with symbols (e.g., dollars, pounds, percent, etc.).
Compound numbers. Hyphenate compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine, compounds with
a number as the first element, and the written form of fractions.
Beginning a sentence. When numbers or a date are required to open a sentence, write them out. For
example: “Five girls and 16 boys tried out for the varsity soccer team.” If you can, rewrite the
sentence.
Numbers & units. Do not mix numbers that are spelled out with symbols. Write out the term for the
symbols as well. For example, write: 45%, or forty-five percent; $20 or twenty dollars. Do not
combine spelled forms of numbers with symbols.
Mixed numbers. Be consistent; do not mix numerals with written numbers when they refer to similar
things. For example, “Only 10 of the 150 people on the tour (not ten of the 150 tourists) were willing
to visit the city after the riot.” But also write: “The President got 1.3 trillion of the 1.6 trillion dollar
tax cut he proposed.”
Ordinal Numbers follow the general rules for numbers. For example, “The window for applications
was the third to twenty-third of August.” But use numerals if more than two words are needed to write
the number. For example, write “Haile Sellassie I was the 225th Emperor of Ethiopia.” However,
MLA style uses numerals exclusively in references (e.g., 2nd ed., 3rd ed.).
Dates and Time
Be consistent in writing dates; use either day-month-year (22 July 1999) or month-day-year
(July 22, 1999), but use only one style in the paper. Times should be written as numerals separated by
a colon, except for times indicated with the terms quarter, half, and o’clock.
Spelling
English developed from many other languages, including Anglo-Saxon, Latin, Greek, and older
versions of French, German, and Danish. Along the way, our “mother tongue” has borrowed words
from Italian, Spanish, Swedish, Swahili, and countless other languages to enrich our vocabulary. All of
this means that spelling individual words correctly in English can be more frustrating than writing
entire paragraphs or even essays. The spell check tool built into word processing programs can guide
you on spelling as you work. In the meantime, use the following set of rules as a general guide. If in
doubt about the correct spelling of a word, use a dictionary. Guess at the spelling, and then check the
guide words in the upper outside corner of each page. Look over the page for the troublesome word.
Example: You are unsure of how to spell the word “laboratory.” You know that the first three letters
are “lab.” You have in front of you Webster’s Tenth Collegiate Dictionary, which lists the guide words
“labor • lact-” on page 650. You scan down the left side until you find “laboratory,” the third entry on
the page.
A last word of warning: Not every spell-checker can be considered reliable. The word “kickstand” is
spelled correctly here, although Microsoft Word® does not believe so. Trust a dictionary or common
sense first and last if the spell-checker seems off.
· Form compound words (the combination of two or more words) by keeping all the letters in each.
Examples: sagebrush, cheesecloth, newsstand, kickstand.
· Place “i” before “e” except after “c” or when sounded like “a” as in “neighbor” or “weigh.” Examples:
believe, retrieve, thief, brief, conceive, deceive.
· Exceptions to this rule: Put “i” before “e” even after “c” if it follows a “ch” or “sh” sound. Examples:
species, conscience, financier.
· More exceptions: Know the following common words. They do not conform to any rule.
either neither leisure weird
seize science glacier foreign
height caffeine protein Frankenstein
· Add either an “s” or “es” to singular nouns to make them plural. If the singular ends in an “s” sound
(ss, x, ch, sh, z), then add “es.” If it ends in any other sound, add just “s.” Examples: rabbits, churches,
glasses, coats, values.
· Make the plural of a word that ends in “f” or “fe” by changing the “f” to a “v” and adding “es.”
Examples: knife=knives, wife=wives, loaf=loaves, wharf=wharves, calf=calves.
· Make the plural of words ending in “y” by switching the “y” for “ies.” Examples: pastry=pastries,
spy=spies, try=tries, cry=cries.
· Words that end in “e” lose it when adding a suffix (letters added to the end of a word to change its
meaning, e.g. –ing, -ed, -ance, -able, -ant) if the suffix begins with a vowel. Examples: care=caring,
fake=faked, insure=insurance, value=valuable, observe=observant.
· Words that end in a silent “e,” however, generally keep the “e” if the suffix begins with a consonant.
Examples: sure=surely, genuine=genuineness, manage=management.
· The following common words are exceptions to this rule:
wisdom argument truly wholly ninth
· For words ending in “y,” change the “y” to an “i” before adding a suffix that begins with a vowel.
Examples: apply=appliance, defy=defiant, rely=reliant, ply=pliable.
· One exception to this rule: If the suffix is “-ing,” do not change the “y.” Examples: cry=crying,
try=trying, fry=frying, party=partying.
· All but three words that end in the sound “seed” spell that sound “cede.” The words that spell it
“ceed”: proceed, succeed, exceed.
· Only one word in common usage ends in “sede”: supersede.
· Words that end with a “y” preceded by a vowel keep the “y” when forming the plural. Examples:
monkey=monkeys, journey=journeys, turkey=turkeys.