Latin

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Grammatical Introduction to Verbs

This introductory section may be a bit overwhelming, but is an overall look at verbs. The majority of this section will be covered in later chapters. Nevertheless, looking over this chapter may help you to familiarize yourself with verbs.

That part about adjectival verbs and principle verbs is rather confusing, could someone sort that out?

Verbs are parts of speech which denote action. There are two main forms of verbs in Latin:

• Principle Verbs (the main verb which is found in every sentence)

• Adjectival Verbs (also known as participles, gerunds and gerundives which describe the state of the described noun).

Every sentence must have a verb. In a sense, the principle verb is the sentence and all the nouns, adverbs and particples are only describing the scenario of the verb. Thus in Latin this constitutes a sentence:

est.

If you want to explain 'who' is or exists, you add a nominative substantive:

Cornēlia est.

We now know Cornelia 'is'. But what is she? So we add an adjective.

Cornēlia est bona.

Now we can see that Cornelia is good, but to elaborate further we can add an adverb:

Cornēlia vix est bona.

Now we know that Cornelia is 'hardly' ('vix: hardly, scarcely, barely) good.

Thus, in English, the shortest Latin sentence is:

I am.

in Latin:

sum

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Examples

These two examples will demonstrate the difference between an adjectival verb and a principle verb.

The resurrected Jesus appeared to his disciples.

'resurrected' is a perfect participle (Adjectival) describing Jesus, while 'appeared' is the principle verb in the sentence.

The shocked disciples see Jesus.

'shocked' is a perfect participle (Adjectival) describing the disciples, while 'see' is the principle verb in the sentence.

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Exercises

Latin/Exercise|Answer|

1. What is the difference between a principle and adjectival verb?
2. What constitutes a sentence?
3. Write a sentence in English, and Latin.
4. Conjugate the verb 'to be' in the past and present tense in English and Latin (I am, You are, He is etc.)

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1. Principal verbs are main verb which is found in every sentence. Adjectival Verbs are participles, gerunds and gerundives which describe the state of the described noun.
2. a verb
3. Eg.- Sum, I am
4. Sum, es, est, sumus, estis, sunt

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Personal Endings

Verbs in Latin are inflected to reflect the person who performs the action. English does the same to some extent in the verb to be:

Latin	English
sum	I am
es	You are
est	(He/she/it) is
sumus	We are
estis	You (all) are
sunt	They are

Latin, however, inflects all verbs, and is much more extensive than English, allowing writers and speakers of Latin to often drop the personal pronoun (as mentioned last lesson), as the performer of the action is understood by the formation of the verb. The Personal pronoun is only usually added for emphasis. In a way, the ending on Latin verbs are a type of pronoun.

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Exercises

Latin/Exercise|Answer|

1. What do the personal pronouns indicate?

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1. Personal pronouns (ego, tu, nos, vos, etc.) add emphasis. They are usually omitted (left out) because they are understood.
2. : Example: Ego amo patrem meum et matrem meam.
3. : I love my mother and my father. (you don't have to write ego, it is understood)

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Moods

There are several moods. Each has its own uses to convey certain ideas. The most commons moods are:

• Indicative • Subjunctive or Conjunctive • Imperative

The two moods we will first learn are the imperative (commands and orders) and the indicative (declarative statements and factual questions).

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Exercises

Latin/Exercise|Answer|

1. List the most common moods.
2. What two moods are we going to learn about in this lesson, and what do they let us construct?

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1. Indicative, subjunctive (or conjunctive) and imperative.
2. The moods we are going to learn about first are:
3. : Imperative: Which we use when we make orders.
4. :: Go away. Fetch me the keys. Do not order me around!
5. : Indicative: Statements which are declarative, and questions concerning facts.
6. :: John plays football.

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Voice

There are two constructions verbs can have regarding voice.

Verbs can have either an active or passive voice.

Exampli Gratia 'I smash the car.' 'smash' is an active verb construct.

The passive is used when the nominative is affected by the verb.

E.g. 'The car is smashed by me.' 'is smashed' is a passive construct.

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Exercises

Latin/Exercise|Translate|

1. What is 'voice'.
2. What is active voice?
3. What is passive voice?
4. Construct a sentence in English using each of these voices.

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1. Voice is how a verb is constructed.
2. When the subject affects the verb
3. When the nominative is affected by the verb
4. Ex.- I am carried, I am being carried.

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Tense

Tense in Latin is comprised of two parts: TIME and ASPECT. Time reflects when the action is occuring or did occur: past, present, or future. Aspect refers to the nature of the action: simple, completed, or repeated. The "completed" aspect is generally termed "perfective" and repeated aspect "imperfective."

Theoretically, a verb could have nine tenses (combinations of time and aspect). However, Latin only has six, since some possible combinations are expressed by the same verb forms. Latin tenses do not correspond exactly to English ones.

Below is a rough guide to tense in Latin.

Time
A S P E C T		Present	Future	Past
	Simple	Future Tense "I will walk"	Perfect Tense "I walked"
	Imperfective	Present Tense "I am walking"	Future Tense "I will be walking"	Imperfect Tense "I was walking"
	Perfective	Perfect Tense "I have walked"	Future Perfect Tense "I will have walked"	Pluperfect Tense "I had walked"

As is evident, some Latin tenses do "double duty." The Latin Present and Future Tenses can either express simple or progressive aspect. Particularly difficult to grasp is the Latin Perfect tense, which can either express an action completed from the point of view of the present ("I have just now finished walking"), or a simple action in past time (its "aorist" sense, from the old Indo European aorist tense, which Latin lost but is still present in Greek).

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Exercises

Latin/Exercise|Translate|

1. Copy out the above table.
2. Study the table.

| Vide (see) the table above.

1. Revision: Fill this table of noun declensions.

Singular
Nominative	puella	servus	rēx	cornū	rēs
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive
Dative
Ablative
Plural
Nominative	puellae	servī	rēgēs	cornua	rēs
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive
Dative
Ablative

1. Copy out the table of pronoun declensions from Lesson 6.
2. Memorise all these tables.

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Infinitive

The infinitive (impersonal) is the form of the verb which simply means 'to (verb)' e.g. 'to do', or 'to be', or 'to love', or 'to hate' etc. All forms which are not in the infinitive are in the finite (personalised) form.

The infinitive has a -re at the end of the stem of the verb. The infinitive of 'to be' is an exception and is 'esse'.

Dēbeō currere nunc = I ought to run now.

esse, aut nōn esse = To be, or not to be?

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Excercises

Answer these two question about the infinitive and finite.

Latin/Exercise|Answer|

1. What is the infinitive? Give an example.
2. What is the finite? Give an example.

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1. The infinitive is the verb-form that simply mean "to (verb)".
2. : To sing, to dance, to drink, to love.
3. Every verb which is not in the infinitive, is in the finite.
4. : He smells, we plot, she had drunken, he pours.

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Irregularities

Verbs which use the passive formation in an active sense are known as deponent. Verbs which don't have a form for every tense and mood are known as defective. You will meet a few words like this soon.

1. What is a deponent verb?
2. What is an irregular verb?
3. What is a defective verb?

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Personal Pronouns

In case you do ever use a personal pronoun to emphasise the SUBJECT of the verb, one must remember that the personal pronoun must be in the nominative case and the number and person of the verb must match that of the subject. (Revise Lesson 7 if unfamiliar with the terms person and subject).

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Exercises

Latin/Exercise|Translate|

1. What case should the subject (performer) of the verb be in?
2. What number should the principle verb be?
3. What person and number is 'ego'?
4. What person and number is 'I'?
5. What person and number is 'we'?
6. What person and number is 'thou'?
7. What person and number is 'ye'?
8. What person and number is 'vōs'?
9. What person and number is 'nōs'?
10. What person and number is 'tū'?
11. What person and number is 'boy'?

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1. Nominative case
2. First person, singular.
3. First person, singular.
4. First person, singular.
5. First person, plural.
6. Second person, singular.
7. Second person, plural.
8. Second person, plural.
9. First person, plural.
10. Second person, singular.
11. Third person, singular.

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Principle Parts

When one looks up a verb in the dictionary, the principle parts are given. From these principle parts you can find the correct form of the verb for every circumstance.

Present Imperfect 1st Person	Imperfect Infinitive	Present Perfect 1st Person	Supine
amō	amāre	amāvi	amātum
Determines whether the vowel is dropped in the 1st person singular present imperfect.	Gives the imperfect stem and infinitive	Gives the perfect stem	Allows you to form adjectival forms of the verb (Participles)

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Exercises

Answer this question about principle parts.

Latin/Exercise|Answer|

1. What do the principle parts allow you to do?

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1. The principle parts are the verb-forms you find when you look in the dictionary. E.g. if you look for the verb amō (love) in a dictionary you would find:
2. : amō • amāre • amāvi • amātum

These four forms will help you form every latin verb you want.

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Using the Dictionary

All nouns are given in the nominative, as well as the declension and gender of the noun. Verbs are alphabetized using the 1st person singular (the first principle part) and the infinitive is given. Supplementary principle parts are given if the various other principle parts do not follow the standard pattern of formation from the infinitive and 1st person singular.

=Verbs: Conjugation in the Present Imperfect = The present imperfect is the simplest tense. To form the present imperfect all that is required is to place the personal endings at the end of the verb stem. Thus, if you have the stem 'ama' (love), to make it 'I love' you place an ō at the end.

I love = amō (amaō*) we love = amāmus

• Latin drops the 'a' in amaō forming amō.

Latin could add personal pronouns, however only for added emphasis and in conjunction with the corresponding person ending on the verb. Otherwise the sentence will not make sense. For example: ego amō = I (not you) love

nōs amāmus = We (not you) love but that would be for special emphasis: It's I, not you, who love.

Here are the forms of the verb 'porta', carry, in the present imperfect tense:

portō I carry first person singular portās thou carriest, you carry second person singular portat he, she, it carries third person singular portāmus we carry first person plural portātis you (all) carry second person plural portant they carry third person plural

'porto' can also be translated 'I am carrying' (present imperfect), 'I do carry' (present emphatic). 'I carry' is known as the 'present simple' tense in English.. Again the 'a' gets dropped when the 'ō' is placed on porta. Porta, and ama are known as 1st conjugation verbs; in other words, verbs which have a stem ending in 'a'.

There are three other conjugations, and below are some examples of verbs from each of the four conjugations (present imperfect tense):

porta, carry (1st. Conj)	mone, warn (2nd Conj)	rege, rule (3rd Conj.)	audī, hear (4th Conj)
portō, I carry	moneō, I warn	regō, I rule	audiō, I hear
portās, thou carriest	monēs, thou warnest	regis, thou rulest	audis, thou hearest
portat, he/she/it carries	monet, he/she/it warns	regit, he/she/it rules	audit, he/she/it hears
portāmus, we carry	monēmus, we warn	regimus, we rule	audimus, we hear
portātis, ye carry	monētis, ye warn	regitis, ye rule	auditis, ye hear
portant, they carry	monent, they warn	regunt, they rule	audiunt, they hear

Each verb uses the same final letter or letters to indicate the 'subject' - I, thou, he/she/it, we, you, they.

Before these final letters, the first conjugation has an 'a' (although when an 'o' is placed, the 'a' is often dropped), the second an 'e', and the third and fourth usually an 'i'. The third person plural forms in the third and fourth conjugations have a 'u'. These verb forms really should be learned by heart.

The commonest verb of all is irregular (see next lesson). Here is a table of the verb in English, Latin and two Romantic languages.

esto: be
Latin	English	French	Spanish|| Icelandic
sum	I am	je suis	yo soy	ég er
es	thou art	tu es	tú eres	þú ert
est	he/she/it is	il/elle est	él/ella es	hann/hún/það er
sumus	we are	nous sommes	nosotros/-as somos	við erum
estis	ye are	vous êtes	vosotros/-as sois	þið eruð
sunt	they are	ils/elles sont	ellos/-as son	þeir/þær/þau eru

The personal endings are the same as in the four regular conjugations.

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Exercises

Latin/Exercise|Translate|What form of the verb 'amo' (hint: amo is conjugated like porto in the table above) would the following words use to become the suffix:

1. ego (I)
2. tū (thou)
3. puer (the boy)
4. nōs (we)
5. vōs (ye)
6. puellae (the girls)

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1. ego amo (I love)
2. tu amas (thou lovest pl., you love pl.)
3. puer amat (the boy loves)
4. nos amamus (we love)
5. vos amatis (ye love pl., you love pl.)
6. puellae amant (the girls love)

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Imperative Mood

The imperative mood is an order (eg. Go!, Run!, Away Now!). The imperative mood is formed by simply using the stem of the verb. If the order is to a large group of people, or you are trying to show respect, you must use the -te suffix.

amō eum = I love him.

amā eum = Love him!.

amāte eum = Love (respectful, or plural) him!

currō casam = I run home.

currā casam = Run home!

currāte casam = Run (respectful, or plural) home!

Regō prudente = I rule wisely.

Regi prudente = Rule wisely!

Regite prudente = Rule (respectful order) wisely!

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Exercises

• Translate Latin verbs:

Latin/Exercise|Translate|Translate the following verbs:

1. portāmus • regunt • monēs • estis • auditis • monent • regō • portās • sunt

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1. we carry • they rule • thou warn • ye are •ye hear • they warn • I rule • you carry • they are

• Translate Latin pronouns:

Latin/Exercise|Translate|Translate the following pronouns:

1. ille • is • ea • id • illum (neut.) • illa (fem.) • ego • tū • nōs • vōs • tibi • mihi • nostrum

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1. he • he • her • it • that • that • I • thou • we • ye • to you • to me • our

• Translate sentences into Latin:''

Latin/Exercise|Translate|Translate Into Latin:

1. I carry my book.
2. Thou kill not.
3. They hear music.

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1. Meum librum porto.
2. Interficis non.
3. Melum audiunt.

the personal endings are o mus and they mean I we s tis you you(pl) t* nt he\she\it they