First part:
These are called the enclitic pronouns (الضمائر المتصلة al-ḍamā’ir al-muttaṣilah):
- With nouns, they have the meaning of possessive demonstratives, e.g. "my, your, his"
- With verbs, they have the meaning of direct object pronouns, e.g. "me, you, him"
- With prepositions, they have the meaning of objects of the prepositions, e.g. "to me, to you, to him"
- With conjunctions and particles known in Arabic as akhawāt inna أخوات إنّ (lit. "sisters of inna ".) like (anna "that ...", li-anna "because ...", lākinna "but ..."), they have the meaning of subject pronouns, e.g. "because I ...", "because you ...", "because he ..."